Climate / Weather Investigations

Climate / Weather Investigations

© 2002 American Geological Institute. http://www.agiweb.org

Contents: All Activities and Investigations
Investigation 1
Investigation 2
Investigation 3
Investigation 4
Investigation 5
Investigation 6
Investigation 7
Investigation 8

Throughout this module, students will use hands-on, inquiry-based explorations to investigate:

• how weather instruments work; 
• what is contained in a weather report; 
• how weather observations are made; 
• the underlying causes of weather patterns; 
• the difference between climate and weather; 
• how scientists know that the climate has changed in the past; 
• and how climate is changing now. 

Investigation 1 -- Observing Weather 

To learn more about elements of weather, visit the following web sites:

• Air Temperature 
• Air Temperature, Glenn Research Center (NASA) 

Read an explanation of what air temperature measures 
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/temptr.html 
• Measuring Air Temperature, National Severe Storms Laboratory 

Learn more about how different thermometers measure temperature. 
http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/~cortinas/1014/l10_2.html 
• Wind 
• What is Wind? British Wind Energy Association 

Find out about the different factors that contribute to wind movement. 
http://www.britishwindenergy.co.uk/edu/wind.html 
• Wind and Wind Power, Iowa Energy Center 

This page includes diagrams of several instruments that measure wind.  It also explains some of the math behind wind speed calculations. 
http://www.energy.iastate.edu/WindManual/Text-Power.html 
• What Causes Wind, About.com 

A brief discussion explains "in very simple terms, wind is the result of air movement over the Earth."  Click on links to related topics: how is wind measured?  what are the world wind records? why are some winds named? 
http://weather.about.com/library/weekly/aa043000a.htm 
• Clouds 
• How Clouds Form and Travel, NASA Goddard Institute 

Brief online article reviews the conditions surrounding cloud formation and also explains how precipitation is "released" from clouds. http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/intro/rossow.01/cloudsform.html 
• What are Clouds? NASA AIRS 

Site reviews how clouds form.  Includes some observational activities to help students understand clouds and also examines how clouds are tied to energy, air stability, and systems and interactions. 
http://www-airs.jpl.nasa.gov/html/edu/clouds/What_are_clouds.html 
• Precipitation 
• Formation of Raindrops, The Learning Network 

Read a short paragraph about the formation of rain.  The article continues with a section on measurement of rainfall, distribution of rainfall, and religion and rainfall. 
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/weather/A0860629.html 

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Investigation 2 --  Comparing Weather Reports

To learn more about weather reports and forecasts, visit the following web sites:
• Weather Reports and Forecasts 
• How To Make a Long Range Weather Forecast, About.com 

This page includes sections on the secret of forecasting, weather almanacs, raw data, services for hire, services for free, and limitations of forecasting. 
http://weather.about.com/library/weekly/aa021499.htm 
• Weather Forecasting, Online Meteorology Guide, University of Illinois 

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/home.rxml 
This page includes the following subtopics: 
• Forecasting Methods 

Different forecasting methods for different weather scenarios. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/mth/prst.rxml 
• Surface Features 

Important surface features to consider when making a forecast. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/sfc/hgh.rxml 
• Forecasting Temperatures 

Factors to consider when forecasting day and nighttime temperatures. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/tmps/cld.rxml 
• Forecasting Precipitation 

Factors to consider when forecasting precipitation. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/prcp/frnt.rxml 

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Investigation 3 -- Weather Maps 

To obtain real weather maps, visit the following web sites:
• National Weather Service Home Page

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/ 
• The Datastreme Project, American Meteorological Society 

http://www.ametsoc.org/dstreme/ 
To learn more about weather maps, visit the following web sites:
• Atmospheric Pressure 
• Atmospheric Pressure: The force exerted by the weight of air, NASA 

Review some general facts about air pressure, how it changes, and what happens if it changes.  The page includes a list of suggested additional activities as well as a web site demonstration of air pressure changes on a hot air balloon. 
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/air_pressure/ 
• Controlling Atmospheric Pressure, Scientific American: Amateur Scientist 

Learn more about the history behind how scientists came to understand what controls atmospheric pressure.. 
http://www.sciam.com/1998/0498issue/0498amsci.html 
• It's a Breeze: How Atmospheric Pressure Effects the Weather, NASA 

Find out about how a mercurial barometer measures atmospheric pressure. 
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/air_pressure/barometer.html 
• High-Pressure Areas and Low-Pressure Areas 
• High and Low Pressure Systems, Oklahoma Climatological Survey 

While this article does give some specific information about weather conditions  in Oklahoma, it also includes some detailed general information about the nature of different high and low pressure systems. 
http://radar.metr.ou.edu/OK1/meteorology/HiLowSystems.html 
• Air Masses and Fronts 
• Air Masses and Fronts, Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies, University of Wisconsin 

This page about weather and why there is weather.  In addition, it explains some of the symbols often seen on weather maps. 
http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/wxwise/class/frntmass.html 
• or another page from the University of Wisconsin on air masses and fronts with different diagrams and maps of the us and world 

http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/lectures/lecture_fronts.html 
• Air Masses and Fronts, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command Public Affairs Office 

Read about cold or warm air mass source regions and consider how your weather may be different depending on the air mass source that affects your area. 
http://pao.cnmoc.navy.mil/pao/Educate/WeatherTalk2/indexairmasse.htm#top 
• Air Masses and Fronts, Online Meteorology Guide, University of Illinois 

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/af/home.rxml 
Topics covered on this site include the following: 
• Air Masses 

Air masses that commonly influence weather in the United States. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/af/arms/home.rxml 
• Fronts  

Boundaries separating air masses. Includes warm fronts, cold fronts, occluded and stationary fronts and dry lines. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/af/frnts/home.rxml 
• Advection 

Introduces advection and describes the differences between warm and cold advection. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/af/adv/adv.rxml 

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Investigation 4 -- Weather Radio Sondes, Satellites, and Radar

To learn more about weather high in the atmosphere, visit the following web sites:
• Radiosondes 
• RADIOSONDES -- An Upper Air Probe, University of Wisconsin at Madison 

Learn about the history and technology of the radiosonde that contains instruments capable of making direct in-situ measurements of air temperature, humidity and pressure with height, typically to altitudes of approximately 30 km. 
http://www.aos.wisc.edu/~hopkins/aos100/wxi-raob.htm 
• Weather Radar 
• Radar Data Details, Unisys Weather 

This site gives a little more detail about the different types of radar data.  In addition, it explains what different colors indicate on a radar image. 
http://weather.unisys.com/radar/details.html 
• National Doppler Radar Sites, National Weather Service 

Interested to know what the radar image in your area looks like right now?  Click on the radar site nearest you to find out. 
http://weather.noaa.gov/radar/national.html 
• Radar and Severe Weather, Miami University 

If you are really interested in weather radar maps, this site has several of the entire continental United States.  It also provides links to other weather related sites. 
http://jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu/coriolis/radarseverewth.html 
• Weather Satellites 
• Satellite Data Details, Unisys Weather 

Find out about and see examples of visible, infrared and water vapor images. 
http://weather.unisys.com/satellite/details.html 

 

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Investigation 5 -- The Causes of Weather

  To learn more about the water cycle, visit the following web sites:
• Main Loop of the Water Cycle 
• Water: A Never Ending Story, University of Washington 

This web page is designed for students and teachers.  It includes activities about different processes in the water cycle with some background material to help teachers. 
http://www-k12.atmos.washington.edu/k12/pilot/water_cycle/index.html 
• Make a Water Cycle Wheel, Illinois EPA 

Print out these pages and follow the instructions to make your own water wheel.  See how the water moves from the ocean to the air to the land and back again. 
http://www.epa.state.il.us/kids/fun-stuff/water-cycle/ 
• Follow a Drip Through the Water Cycle, USGS 

Read a story about a drop of water as it goes through the entire water cycle.  To help, some of the terms are linked to their definitions in a glossary. 
http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/followdrip.html 
• The Water Cycle, EPA 

Learn more about how sunshine, evaporation, rain, snow, mountains, rivers and streams, and oceans are all involved in the water cycle processes. 
http://www.epa.gov/region07/kids/wtrcycle.htm 
• Evaporation and Condensation 
• Ask a Scientist: Evaporation and Humidity, Department of Energy 

Find out some more details about evaporation that appeared as a question on the Ask a Scientist at the Department of Energy. 
http://newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/wea00/wea00063.htm 
• Clouds and Precipitation 
• Cloud Classification, Plymouth State College 

This site offers a boutique of different cloud photos and descriptions.  It also explains how and why clouds form at different elevations. 
http://vortex.plymouth.edu/clouds.html 
• Clouds and Precipitation, Online Meteorology Guide, University of Illinois 

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/home.rxml 
Topics covered on this site include the following: 
• Development 

The importance of rising motion and the mechanisms responsible for lifting the air. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/dvlp/wtr.rxml 
• Cloud Types 

High, middle and low-level clouds, vertically developed clouds, plus some less common cloud types. 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/cldtyp/home.rxml 
• Precipitation 

Hail, rain, freezing rain, sleet, and snow 
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/prcp/home.rxml 
• Clouds, Precipitation, and Weather Radar, University of Wisconsin 

Test your knowledge with this online quiz about clouds, precipitation, and weather radar. 
http://www.uwgb.edu/moranj/chapter7.htm 

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Investigation 6 -- Climates

To learn more about the different climatic zones, visit the following web sites:

• Biomes, Exploring the Environment 

"Scientists have divided the broad spectrum of climates and ecological communities found on Earth into biomes in different ways - some with many divisions, some with only a few."  This site focuses on some of the common biomes with photos that accompany separate descriptions of each.
http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/biomes.html
• Arctic Tundra 
• Deciduous Forest 
• Desert  
• Taiga 
• Tropical Rainforest 
• Tropical Savannah 
• Mission Biomes, Earth Observatory, NASA 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/
Topics covered on this page include:
• Tundra 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biotundra.html
• Shrubland 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/bioshrubland.html
• Rainforest 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biorainforest.html
• Grassland 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biograssland.html
• Desert 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biodesert.html
• Temperature Deciduous Forest 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biotemperate.html
• Coniferous Forest 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/bioconiferous.html
• Biomes for Teachers! University of Richmond 

This page includes links to other sources of background information, a slide show of biomes, activities, and lesson plans.
http://www.richmond.edu/~ed344/webunits/biomes/teacher.html
To learn more about the difference between weather and climate, visit the following web sites:
• Factors That Determine Climate 
• Climate, Environmental Change Network 

This page features a diagram of the climatic zones of the world. 
http://www.ecn.ac.uk/Education/climatic_factors.htm 
• A Primer: Factors Affecting Arctic Weather and Climate 

"The factors discussed in this section are building blocks to understanding arctic weather and climate. Each factor plays an important role alone and in interaction with other factors. The "Arctic Energy Budget" ties all the factors together in a description of the Arctic as a climate system." 
http://nsidc.org/arcticmet/factors/ 
• Climate and Vegetation 
• Climate, Land Use, and Environmental Sensitivity (CLUES), USGS Global Change Research 

Read about some different projects that investigate vegetation response to climatic change, and vegetation-land surface impacts on climate change. 
http://climchange.cr.usgs.gov/info/veg-clim/ 
• Koppen Climate Classification  

Find out more about the 5 principal climate types Koppen developed in the early 1900s. 
http://www.hqlist.demon.nl/gvg/ctkoppe2.htm 

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Investigation 7 -- Exploring Climate Change

To learn more about measuring climate change, visit the following web sites:
• Climate Proxies 
• Proxy Climatic Data,  NOAA Paleoclimatology Program 

This site provides links for several different climate proxies including: Historical Data, Corals, Fossil Pollen, Tree Rings, Ice Cores, Ocean & Lake Sediments 
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/primer_proxy.html 
• Summary for Policymakers: The Science of Climate Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (United Nations) 

Review a list of facts and statistics about Greenhouse gases, anthropogenic aerosols, climate change over the past century, the evidence for human influence on global climate, future climate change, and remaining uncertainties. 
http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sarsum1.htm 
• Fossil Groups: Spores and Pollen, USGS 

"By analyzing pollen from well-dated sediment cores collected at critical sites, it is possible to obtain high-resolution records of vegetation change with decadal-scale resolution and to document community changes over the last few centuries and millennia."
http://geology.er.usgs.gov/paleo/sporepollen.shtml
• Tree rings 
• Photo Gallery of Tress and Tree Rings, University of Tennessee 

http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/gallery.htm 
• Classic References in Dendrochronology, University of Tennessee 

http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/references.htm#general
• Fossils 
• Giant Dinosaur-Age Bones in Antarctica Clue to Warmer Climate, Cleveland Museum of Natural History 

Read a transcript from a CNN story about the dinosaur bones from Antarctica as a clue to climate change. 
http://www.cmnh.org/fun/dinosaur-archive/1999Jul/msg00138.html 
• Ice Cores 
• Why Study Ice Cores, National Ice Core Laboratory (NICL) 

This site includes a brief description about why ice cores are an important source of information. 
http://nicl.usgs.gov/why.htm
• How is it done? 

This section of the National Ice Core Laboratory web site takes you step by step through the process of taking, obtaining, studying an ice core.
http://nicl.usgs.gov/process.htm
• Ice Core Contributions to Global Change Research: Past Successes and Future Directions, NICL 

This article is provided in either html or pdf format to download and goes into great detail about using ice cores for climate change research.
http://www.nicl-smo.sr.unh.edu/icwg/
• Past Glaciations 
• All About Glaciers, National Snow and Ice Data Center 

This site includes four major sections: 1) data and science, 2) general information, 3) glacier news, 4) and the glacier story.
http://nsidc.org/glaciers/
• Ice Ages in New England, UMASS 

This page provides some general description as well as photos about the last glaciation of New England. 
http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/iceages.html
• Causes of Climate Change 
• Changing Atmosphere, Changing Climate? , EPA 

This fact sheet explains how human activity may be affecting the climate.
http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/climate/index.html 

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Investigation 8 -- Climate Change Today

To learn more about global climate change, visit the following web sites:
• A Paleo Perspective on Global Warming, NOAA Paleoclimatology Program 

This site covers several topics including: What is Global Warming?  How do we study Global Warming?  Weather, Climate, and Paleoclimatology. 
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/globalwarming/paleostory.html 
• Global Climate Change Student Guide, ARIC 

This comprehensive guide includes chapters on the climate system, causes of climate change, empirical study of climate, climate modeling, paleoclimatic change, and contemporary climate change. 
http://www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/gccsg/index.html 
• Global Warming, NOAA 

Find out the answers to some frequently asked questions about global warming. 
http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalwarming.html 

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Resources:
Web Sites:

• National Weather Service 

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/ 
• National Climatic Data Center home page  

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ 
• Datastreme Project, American Meteorological Society 

http://www.ametsoc.org/dstreme/ 
• Climate Change Outreach Material, EPA 

http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/publications/outreach/ 
• Educational Outreach - Paleoclimatology Science Primer, NOAA 

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/primer.html 
• Find Our How Satellites Work, Wind Energy Program, Department of Energy 

http://www.eren.doe.gov/wind/feature.html 
• Satellites, NOAA 

http://www.noaa.gov/satellites.html 
• Greenland Summit Ice Cores Cd-Rom, NOAA 

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/greenland/summit/index.html 
 
• Links for using weather instruments 
• thermometer 
• How to Read a Thermometer, University of Michigan 

http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~coalitn/sciedoutreach/funexperiments/agesubject/lessons/caps/thermometer.html 
• Make a Thermometer, Energy and Science Projects for Students, California Energy Commission 

Learn how a thermometer works by making one for yourself. 
http://www.energy.ca.gov/education/projects/projects-html/thermometer.html 
• anemometer 
• Wind Speed Measurement: Anemometers, Danish Wind Industry Association 

http://www.windpower.dk/tour/wres/wndspeed.htm 
• Wind Speed Indicator, Energy and Science Projects for Students, California Energy Commission 

http://www.energy.ca.gov/education/projects/projects-html/anemometer.html 
• Anemometer, Kestrel Wind/Weather Instruments 

These instructions apply for a hand-held digital anemometer and also explains how it measures different wind speeds. 
http://www.nkhome.com/ww/2000/instructions.html 
• barometer 
• It's a Breeze: How Atmospheric Pressure Effects the Weather, NASA 

Find out about how a mercurial barometer measures atmospheric pressure. 
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/air_pressure/barometer.html 

Maps:

• Geologic maps: State and local: 
• The United States Geological Survey National Geologic Map Database contains information on how and where to obtain geologic maps. (http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/) 
• Your state Geological Survey - find your state survey on-line at Association of American State Geologists (http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/AASG/AASG.html). 
• Download state geologic maps at About.com's site.  (http://geology.about.com/science/geology/cs/geomapsusstates/) 
• Reading Geologic Maps - informative review on how to read and interpret geologic maps.  (http://geology.about.com/science/geology/library/weekly/aa100800a.htm) 

 
• Geologic maps: Regional (two or more states): 
• The on-line bookstore of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (http://bookstore.AAPG.org; 918-584-2555) 
• Topographic maps: Local 
• The United States Geological Survey MapFinder allows you to order 7.5 minute maps online for $4 per map plus $5 s/h per order. (http://edc.usgs.gov/Webglis/glisbin/finder_main.pl?dataset_name=MAPS_LARGE) 
• The United States Geological Survey maintains a list of Map Dealers.  Click on your state to obtain a list of retailers who sell maps. (http://mapping.usgs.gov/esic/map_dealers/) 
• The United States Geological Survey National Geologic Map Database site on How to find topographic maps (http://ngmsvr.wr.usgs.gov/Other_Resources/rdb_topo.html) 
• TopoZone site allows you to download topographic maps (including USGS maps) for free, at various scales (from 1:100,000 to 1:24,000).  (http://www.topozone.com/) 
• MapServer offers free online viewing of topo, nautical and aeronautical charts plus high altitude digital ortho quads (nav photos). (www.maptech.com and www.mapserver.maptech.com) 
• General Map Resources: 
• An excellent list of map resources available online can be found on the Central Michigan University Resources for Earth Science and Geography Instruction web site.  Included are links to sites to make maps, as well as links to free downloadable outline maps, satellite imagery, GPS, and GIS databases. (http://personal.cmich.edu/~franc1m/locamap.htm) 
• "Maps" - USGS Earth Science Information Center, includes general map information, from how to read maps to how to obtain them.  Also includes links to further information regarding topographic, thematic, planetary maps, and more. (http://ask.usgs.gov/maps.html) 
• National Geographic (maps and videos): 1-800-962-1643 (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps/index.html) 
• "Maps of the United States" - USGS fact sheet, contains a series of depictions of the United States, along with information on how to obtain additional US maps. (http://www.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/maps-us/index.html) 
• "Maps of the World" - USGS fact sheet, contains a series of world maps, including outline maps, seismicity maps, and political maps.  Also contains information for ordering more specific world maps. (http://www.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/maps-world/maps-world.html) 
• "National Atlas Maps" - USGS site of a variety of US maps that are available online, including shaded relief maps, aquifer maps, and further information on how to order maps not available online.  (http://www-atlas.usgs.gov/atlasmap.html?) 

Videos:

• 
  

Books:

• National Research Council.  Global Environmental Change: Research Pathways for the Next Decade.  National Academy Press, 1999. 

http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064201/html/ 
• Tom Murphree and Mary K. Miller with the Exploratorium. Watching Weather: A Low Pressure Book About High Pressure Systems and Other Weather Phenomena, Owl Books, 1998, 154 pages, 5 1/4” x 8 1/4”, paperback. 
• J. Burton and K. Taylor, The Nature and Science of Rain (1997); J.Williams, The Weather Book (2d ed. 1997). 

Magazines:

• Science, Causes of Climate Change Over the Past 1000 Years.  Thomas J. Crowley.  July 14, 2000, Volume 289: 270-277. 
• Scientific American.  The Coming Climate, Meteorological records and computer models permit insights into some of the broad weather patterns of a warmer world. Karl, Nicholls, and Gregory.  May 1997. 
• Geotimes, AGI 

This magazine reviews current issues in the Earth Sciences and can serve as a valuable supplemental resource for teachers and students alike.  Visit the web site for online articles and information about obtaining a one-year subscription (40% discount for AGI Member Society members; 65% discount for students). 
http://www.geotimes.org/current/ 

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